Shomali, eds. London: Melisende, Includes articles by prominent spokesmen from both faiths that explore synergies between the doctrines and practices of each. O'Mahony, Anthony, Mohammad A. Shomali, and Wulstan Peterburs, eds.
These papers contain analysis and reflection on the roles of faith and reason, authority and tradition, morality and praxis within Catholic and Shica thought and its influence on the daily lives of adherents. Even in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the key texts and many of the major figures of the faith remained unexplored. In this period, Kohlberg notes, the only serious work on the faith was done by such scholars as Ignaz Goldziher Goldziher , Louis Massignon Massignon , and Rudolph Strothmann Strothmann In the 20th century, the earliest overview of the faith in English was Donaldson Donaldson, Dwight.
London: Luzac, The first detailed study of the faith in English. The author, who died in , was an American Presbyterian minister resident in Mashhad, Iran, from to Fahd, Tawfiq.
Paris: Presses Universitaires, Akademie der Wissenschaften 78 : — Reprinted in Goldziher's Gesammelte Schriften , Vol. A scholarly discussion of aspects of the faith from the late 19th century, from a well-known Orientalist.
Kohlberg, Etan. Edited by Martin Kramer, 31— Boulder, CO: Westview, Massignon, Louis. Reprinted in Massignon's Opera minora , Vol. Moubarac Beirut: Dar al-Maaref, Strothmann, Rudolph. Leipzig: Harrassowitz, The Iranian revolution of and the rapid Islamic turn taken by the revolutionary government renewed interest among scholars in the faith in its Iranian setting.
It has an extensive, very useful bibliography. Edwards, David B. Edited by Nikki Keddie and Juan Cole, — Emadi, Hafizullah. DOI: Mousavi, Sayed A. Martin's, Those who settled in Uganda were among the Asians expelled by Idi Amin in Anderson discusses the organizational structure of the community in this period. Amiji, Hatim. A good general discussion of the origins and history of the Bohra community. Anderson, J. Nanji, Azim.
Rizvi, Seyyid A. Chubin , however, argues that from its earliest days the Islamic Republic posed a threat—ranging from the use of propaganda to support for terrorism and opposition groups—to its neighbors, whereas under the last shah Iran had been a guarantor of regional stability and security. Bahry, Louay. Chubin, Shahram. Edited by Martin Kramer, — Khuri, Fuad. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Kostiner, Joseph.
Ramazani, R. Edited by Nikki Keddie and Juan Cole, 30— Between and , some , East Indian laborers migrated to Trinidad and Jamaica to work on its plantations. In it was estimated that about 13 percent of these were Muslims. In colonial police, supported by British soldiers, shot Indians participating in these ceremonies, killing about sixteen. Singh discusses the massacre. Chelkowski, Peter. Korom, Frank J. With illustrations, the authors chronicle Muharram commemorations in the region.
Singh, Kelvin. Bloodstained Tombs: The Muharram Massacre London: Macmillan Caribbean, The author discusses the massacre of Indians participating in Muharram commemorations.
The Khoja Twelver community in London maintains a website at Hujjat. Crombecque , Vanzan , and Vanzan discuss the Ashura commemorations across the region. The home website of the Khoja Twelvers of London, with links to a list of programs and other community activities.
Vanzan, Anna. Edited by Soussie Rastegar and Anna Vanzan, — Juan Cole is one of the first scholars to explore the history and development of Twelver communities in the subcontinent and their connections with their coreligionists in Iran and, especially, Iraq.
Cole explores the extent to which class and gender have influenced interpretations of the faith. He argues that the community is less interested in focusing on sectarian and, hence, potential political distinctiveness than in identifying themes of injustice common to other faith communities in India. Pinault looks at Muharram ceremonies as a gauge of the health of the community as a whole.
See also Pakistan. Cole, Juan Ricardo. Berkeley: University of California Press, Edited by Violette Graf. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, Cole is one of the first scholars to explore the history and development of the Twelver communities in the subcontinent and their connections with their coreligionists in Iran and, especially, Iraq.
Here the author explores the extent to which class and gender have influenced interpretations of the faith. Tauris, , — See also Cole's webpage on h-net's site. D'Souza, Diane. Edited by I.
Ahmad and H. Reifeld, — New Delhi: Social Science Press, The author discusses women's recourse to devotional practices as part of a social networking process in the present day. Hjortshoj, Keith. A discussion of Muharram practices in Lucknow from the midth century to the late s, including mention of riots in , and , and some discussion of the possible causes thereof.
Howarth, Toby M. London: Routledge, An excellent discussion of Muharram commemorations in modern-day Hyderabad. The author argues the community is less interested in focusing on sectarian and, hence, potential political distinctiveness than on identifying themes of injustice common to other faith communities in India.
Pinault, David. New York: St Martin's, Others have argued for the legitimacy of the former as one sort of religious expression.
Algar was one of the first to argue that the Twelver clergy played a consistently positive political role in Iranian history. Algar counters Keddie in the same volume , on role of the clergy in the modern period. Akhavi appeared just as the Islamic revolution got underway and remains the best account to date of the inherently political nature of the faith throughout the past century.
Mottahedeh is a superbly readable reconstruction of modern Iranian history, overlaying the biography of a religious scholar who lived and worked through the revolution. Ramazani offers a more nuanced, less alarmist discussion of the potential impact of Iran's revolution on its neighbors than do many others available at the time. Akhavi, Shahrough. Algar, Hamid. Algar argues that that the Twelver clergy played a consistently positive political role in Iranian history.
Edited by Nikki Keddie, — Algar's response to Keddie , in the same volume, on role of the clergy in the modern period. After the revolution, a constitutional structure emerged in Iran that institutionalised the role of the Twelver scholars as representatives of the Hidden Imam and guardians of the state.
An institutionalised ideology,vilayat-i faqih the authority of the jurist , was written into the Iranian constitution. This ideology established a leading role for the supreme religious leader in the affairs of the state, while also allowing for an elected legislative body, themajlisor parliament, and an elected president. For resisting the tyrannical rule of the second Umayyad Caliph Yazid, Imam Husayn and his followers were massacred at Karbala, in present day Iraq.
In the absence of the Imam,ijtihadcould only be exercised by competent and qualified religious scholars. Such individuals, called mujtahids , became the major source of authoritative guidance on daily issues facing believers. These scholars received their training in centres where religious learning was preserved and transmitted. In addition to centres in Iraq, such as in Najaf and Karbala, there were also important institutions of religious learning in Iran - in Qum, Mashhad and Isfahan - and subsequently in the Indian subcontinent.
At majalis , sessions devoted to the commemoration of the martyrdom of Imam Husayn, preachers recount the events of his death in sermons known asrawda-khani,and prayers are offered. The gathering places at which such events take place are known asHusayniyyas orImambaras,which consist of extensive, decorated structures adorned with images that recall the tragedy.
By the middle of the 9th century CE, they had settled in Salamiyya in Syria. During this period, they concealed their identity from the public and sought to consolidate and organise the widely dispersed Ismaili community. The Fatimid territories participated vigorously in international trade with North Africa, Nubia, the Middle East, Europe, Byzantium Constantinople in particular , the islands of the Mediterranean andIndia. Agriculture advanced to a level of general self-sufficiency; industry received active stimulus from the state and helped boost both inland and maritime trade.
It was, however, in the sphere of intellectual life that the Fatimid achievement seems most brilliant and outstanding. The Fatimid rulers were lavish patrons of learning.
Their encouragement of scientific research and cultural pursuits attracted the finest minds of the age to the Caliphal court in Cairo, regardless of religious persuasion. Such luminaries included mathematicians and physicists, astronomers, physicians, historians, geographers and poets. This institution, with its library of over , manuscripts, was open to followers of different religions.
The impact of this cultural and intellectual flowering was not limited to the Muslim world. The influence of the academic institutions of Cairo and other centres of Ismaili scholarship spread into Europe, contributing significantly to the development of scientific thought and philosophy in the West. Nasir-i Khusraw d. In the same vein, Hasan-i Sabbah d. For appointments in the Fatimid judiciary, as in other branches of government, merit was a primary criterion.
The period of Fatimid rule is also noteworthy for the support and encouragement given to Christians and Jews within the state. The seat of the Nizari Imamate moved to Iran, where the Ismailis had already succeeded, under the leadership of Hasan-i Sabbah, in establishing a state comprising a network of fortified settlements. With its headquarters at Alamut , in northern Iran, the Nizari state later extended to parts of Syria. Although there were continual wars among Muslims over issues of power and territory, this period of Muslim history does not paint a simple canvas of one camp fighting another.
The military situation was further complicated by the presence of the Crusaders , who were in contact with the Nizari Ismailis of Syria. Shifting alliances among all these different groups was the normal order of the times. In these trying times of struggle, military encounters and changing alliances, the Ismailis of the Alamut state did not forsake their intellectual and literary traditions.
Their fortresses housed impressive libraries with collections of books on various religious subjects and included philosophical and scientific tracts as well as scientific equipment. Nor did the hostile environment force the Nizari Ismailis to abandon their liberal policy of patronage to men of learning, which benefited Muslim as well as non-Muslim scholars and scientists.
Their settlements in Iran also served as sanctuaries for waves of refugees, irrespective of creed, who fled both local conflicts and the Mongol onslaught. Alamut finally fell to the Mongols in CE. The Ismailis who remained in Iran had to protect their identity to escape persecution. Given the esoteric nature of their tradition, Sufi orders often provided hospitality to the Ismailis.
During this difficult phase, the institution of the Ismaili Imamate retained its resilience. In the 14th century, under the influence of the Nizari Imams, new centres of Nizari activity were established in the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, the mountainous regions of Hindukush, Central Asia, and parts of China.
In South Asia, the Nizari Ismailis became known as Khojas , and they developed a distinctive devotional literature known as the Ginans. The modern Nizari Ismaili community has a global presence. Historically, the community reflected a wide geographical and ethnographic diversity based on the various cultural regions of the world where its members originated and lived.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, many Ismailis from South Asia migrated to Africa and settled there. In more recent times, there has been migration from all parts of the Ismaili world to North America and Europe.
The shared values that unite Ismailis are centred on their allegiance to a living Imam. The authority and guidance of the Imam provides the enabling framework for the development of the Ismaili community and for the continuity of its Muslim heritage.
The modern phase of Nizari Ismaili history, as with other Muslims, can be dated to the 19th century and to the significant historical changes arising from the growth and enlargement of European presence and power in the Muslim world.
His leadership enabled the community in India to lay the foundations for institutional and social developments and also fostered more regular contacts with Ismaili communities in other parts of the world.
He also played an important role representing Muslims in the emerging political institutions under British rule in India.
Aga Khan III was Imam for 72 years, the longest in Ismaili history, and his life spanned dramatic political, social and economic transformations. His long-term involvement in international affairs, his advocacy of Muslim interests in troubled times, and his commitment to the advancement of education, particularly for Muslim women, reflect his significant and generous contributions.
It was his leadership as Imam, however, that transformed the modern history of the Nizari Ismailis, enabling them to adapt successfully to the challenges of the 20th century. In South Asia and Africa, the Nizari Ismailis established administrative strutures, eductional institutions, and health services, and built on economic opportunities in trade and industry.
In , the Nizari Ismaili community in East Africa adopted a constitution, which laid the basis for an organised framework of institutions and governance at local, regional and national levels. The revised Ismaili constitution, which serves the social governance needs of all Nizari Ismailis, facilitates a unified approach to internal organisation and external relations, while taking account of regional diversity and local differences. As in the past, Ismailis follow a strong tradition of voluntary service, contributions, and donations of time, expertise, and personal resources to the Imam and communal institutions.
The present Nizari Imam assumed his post in , at a time when much of the developing world, including the Muslim world, was going through an important period of transition, often marked by political change and upheaval. These continued throughout the 20th century, making it particularly vital that the Ismailis were guided appropriately through periods of crises and tumultuous changes, as in East Africa and the subcontinent, and later in Tajikistan, Iran, Syria and Afghanistan.
While the internal institutional organisations of the Nizari Ismaili community continued to be strengthened and reorganised to respond to changing conditions, the Imam also created new institutions to better serve the complex development needs of the community and the societies in which his followers lived.
This gave rise to the establishment of the AKDN Aga Khan Development Network with the goal of creating strategies for sustainable human development conducive to the fulfilment of the cultural, economic, social, and spiritual aspirations of individuals and communities.
A number of institutions within the AKDN pursue a variety of programmes in economic development, education social development, culture, and the environment across the world, in both rural and urban settings, with a particular emphasis on disadvantaged populations. Neither the exoteric zahir nor the esoteric batin aspect of the religion obliterates the other.
The Imamate thus enables believers to go beyond the apparent or outward form of the revelation in their search for its inner spirituality and meaning. Both communities, accordingly, subscribe to the fundamentals of Islam and its core practices. For many centuries, a prominent feature of the religious landscape of Islam has been gathering spaces that coexist in harmony with the mosque.
The resulting diversity ofthese practices corresponds to the multiple cultural, linguistic, and literary traditions of the Nizari Ismailis, which reflects the pluralism of the of the MuslimUmmawithin the fundamental unity of Islam. This unity among Muslims has historically coexisted with the right of each school of Islamic thought to practice its particular interpretation of the central tenets of Islam.
He lives in Mumbai Bombay , where the leadership has moved from its earlier headquarters in Gujarat. Following the annexation of the province of Najran from the Yemen to Saudi Arabia in , a smaller community of Sulaymanis is also to be found there with a much smaller number in India. Sayyidna Muhammad has continued to emphasise the strong tradition of learning in the Daudi community. There are well-establishedmadrasasfor the religious education of all Daudi Bohras as well as schools for secular education.
The tradition of retaining the heritage of learning through manuscript study has been well preserved, and scholarly and literary works, primarily in Arabic, continue to be developed within the community. The majority of Ismaili Bohras are in business and industry and have a well-deserved reputation for entrepreneurship and public service.
The Sulaymani community is of predominantly Arab origin and lives mostly in Yemen. It is found in both urban and rural areas, with strong tribal roots.
The Sulaymani community of Najran in Saudi Arabia has often found it difficult to practice its faith openly and freely because of pressure from the official Wahhabi sect of Saudi Arabia. The much smaller Sulaymani community in India has produced noted public officials and scholars. There are certain differences between the traditions and the social practices of the Arabic-speaking Yemeni Sulaymanis and the Daudis of South Asia, who use a form of the Gujarati written in Arabic script.
The Daudi Bohras have also incorporated many Hindu customs in their marriage and other ceremonies. Yahya was eventually tracked down by the Umayyads and killed in CE.
By the middle of the 9th century CE, the Zaydis shifted their attention away from Iraq and concentrated their activities in regions far removed from the centres of Abbasid power. These regions included Daylam , in northern Iran, and Yemen, where two Zaydi states were soon founded.
The Zaydis did not recognise a hereditary line of Imams, nor did they attach any significance to the principle of designation, nass. According to Zaydi doctrine, if an Imam wished to be recognised, he would have to assert his claims publicly in an uprising khuruj , in addition to having the required religious knowledge.
Many Zaydi Imams were learned scholars and authors. In contrast to the Twelvers and the Ismailis, the Zaydis excluded underage males from the Imamate. They alsorejected the eschatological idea of a concealed Mahdi and his expected return. However, the Zaydis developed the doctrine of hijra ,the obligation to emigrate from a land dominated by unjust, non-Zaydi rulers. However, this designation was unclear and obscure, so that its intended meaning could be understood only through investigation.
Religious knowledge, the ability to render independent rulings ijtihad , and piety were emphasised as the qualifications of the Imam. The list of the Zaydi Imams has never been completely fixed, although many of them were unanimously accepted by their followers. This suited their aim of giving Iran cohesion, rules and a strong state, but they also turned their backs on their own origins as Sufis and put in train tensions that have persisted for centuries.
Even though distinguished jurists were in general revered and emulated, the clerical community as a whole, with its varying judicial ranks, were at times the center [sic] of ridicule and disdain among common Persians. Proponents of folk Sufism attracted a significant following along the lower classes, which perceived them as more genuine, altruistic, austere and generous than the jurists.
Iran today still shows a popular scepticism about mujtahids, or clerics, commonly called mullahs: think of Marmoulak the Lizard , the film directed by Kamal Tabrizi, or indeed of everyday shared-taxi conversations.
This long predates the Islamic Republic, and its roots may go back longer than clerical establishment instated by the Safavids. In Islam without Allah?
The faqih jurist , who would become a cornerstone of the Safavid system, studies the interpretation and implementation of these rules, and does not necessarily seek to foster iman among the people. But throughout Islamic history, writes Turner, some thinkers have emphasised the limited nature of jurisprudence and its practitioners, the fuqaha plural of faqih. Among these was Abu Hamad Muhammad al-Ghazali, the Tus-born century philosopher who tried to balance different aspects of Islam.
According to Ghazali , writes Turner, jurisprudence is connected with religion only indirectly…The regulation of social life and form of government are secondary — albeit indispensable — adjuncts to the fundamentals of belief, and it is the regulation of social life and government, with its myriad rules and laws, that form the domain of the jurist.
The heart is removed from this domain, since attention is focused only on the outward confession Islam and not the inward intention. Initially, the Safavids brought clerics from the Arab world, particularly Jabal Amil in what is now south Lebanon, but gradually a new breed of Iranian Shia faqih emerged. Of these, Mohammad Baqir Majlisi, appointed to the state-sponsored posts of Friday prayer leader in the Safavid capital Isfahan in s and shaykh al-Islam in , was particularly important.
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